Biodiversity in rubber agroforests, carbon emissions, and rural livelihoods: An agent-based model of land-use dynamics in lowland Sumatra

Rubber agroforests in the mostly deforested lowlands of Sumatra, Indonesia are threatened by conversion
into monoculture rubber or oil palm plantations. We applied an agent-based model to explore the
potential effectiveness of a payment for ecosystem services (PES) design through a biodiversity rich
rubber eco-certification scheme. We integrated conditionality, where compliance with biodiversity
performance indicators is prerequisite for awarding incentives. We compared a PES policy scenario to
‘business-as-usual’ and ‘subsidized land use change’ scenarios to explore potential trade-offs between
ecosystem services delivery and rural income. Results indicated that a rubber agroforest eco-certification
scheme could reduce carbon emissions and species loss better than alternative scenarios. However, the
suggested premiums were too low to compete with income from other land uses. Nevertheless, integrating
our understanding of household agent behavior through a spatially explicit and agent-specific
assessment of the trade-offs can help refine the design of conservation initiatives such as PES.